Class 12 Optional English Note || Unit 1 Introduction to Language and Linguistics

Unit 1

Introduction to Language and Linguistics

1. Language Family

A language family is a group of languages that are related to each other through a common ancestor language. Linguists classify languages into families based on similarities in their vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, as well as their historical and geographical contexts.

The world’s three largest language families are:

A. Indo-European Language Family

B. Sino-Tibetan Language Family

C. Niger- Congo Family

A. Indo- European Language Family

The Indo-European language family is the largest language families in the world. The languages of this family are mainly spoken in Europe and Indian- sub continent. The languages including English, Spanish, Hindi, German, etc. are examples of the Indo-European Language Family.

B. Sino- Tibetan Language Family

This language family is also called the Indo-Chinese family. This family can be classified into Tibeto-Burman and Chinese sub- families. Languages like Chinese, Tibetan, Thai, Newari, Tamang, Limbu, Rai, Cantonese, etc. are the languages of Sino-Tibetan language family.

C. Niger-Congo Family

The Niger-Congo family of languages consists of over fifteen hundred languages with approximately 180 million speakers. The languages of this family are mainly spoken in Nigeria, South Africa, Malawai, Kenya, Zimbabwe, Guniea, Tanzania, Congo, Niger, Senegal, Mali, etc. Zulu, Swalili, Xhosa, Bassa, etc. are the languages belonging to the Niger-Congo family.

2. Language Change

Language change is variation over time in a language’s phonetic, morphological, semantic, and syntactic features. Language is constantly adopting and changing to reflect our changing lives, experiences and cultures. Language change enables us to accommodate new ideas, inventions and technologies.

Causes of Language Change:

a. Fashion

Fashion can cause language change by introducing new words or phrases that become popular in a particular social group. These words or phrases may then spread to wider audiences through media and social interaction, leading to their adoption into mainstream language use. With the rise of smartphones and social media, taking pictures of oneself became a popular trend. The word "selfie" was coined and became widely used to describe the act of taking a picture of oneself.

b. Foreign Influence

Foreign influence can cause changes in language through borrowing, language contact, translation, migration, and cultural exchange. When languages come into contact, they can influence each other. For example, English has borrowed words from many different languages such as "sushi" from Japanese and "pajama" from Hindi. When people migrate from one country to another, they bring their language with them, leading to the introduction of new words and phrases into the new language.

c. Broadening

Broadening is the process in which the meaning of a word becomes more general or more inclusive than its historical earlier from. For example, the word "cool" originally meant "moderately cold," but over time has come to mean "fashionable" or "impressive." The word "gay" originally meant "happy" or "carefree," but has come to refer primarily to homosexuality.

d. Narrowing

Narrowing is the process in which the meaning of a word becomes less general or less inclusive than its historically earlier meaning. For example, the old meaning of the word 'meat' was 'any type of food', but now it has narrowed to 'flesh of an animal'.

Types of language change:

Phonological change: This refers to changes in the sounds of a language, such as shifts in pronunciation, stress patterns, or tone.

Syntactic change:

This refers to changes in the way words are combined into phrases or sentences, such as the loss of inflectional agreement or changes in word order.

Lexical change:

This involves changes in the vocabulary of a language, such as the addition of loanwords from other languages, the creation of new words, or shifts in the meanings of existing words.

Language Death

Language death means the extinction of a particular language from existence in both written and spoken forms. A language dies when nobody speaks it any more. When a speech community’s linguistic competence in their language decreases, eventually resulting in no native or fluent speakers of it, language death is said to occur.

Language Shift

Language shift refers to the process by which a community or group of people gradually stops using their native language in favor of another language. This can happen for a variety of reasons, such as economic or political pressures, social mobility, education, and migration. It is also called language transfer or language replacement.

Minority, Endangered and Dominant Languages

A minority language is a language spoken by a minority group within a larger society or community. In many cases, the minority language is not the dominant or official language of the country or region, and may be at risk of being marginalized or lost. Examples of minority languages include Basque in Spain, Welsh in the United Kingdom, Catalan in Spain, Quechua in Peru, Maori in New Zealand, and Cherokee in the United States. These languages are spoken by relatively small communities within their respective countries.

An endangered language is a language that is at risk of disappearing or becoming extinct. This can happen when there are very few remaining native speakers, or when younger generations are no longer learning or using the language. Examples of endangered languages include Ainu in Japan, Breton in France, and Cornish in the United Kingdom.

A dominant language is a language that is the most widely spoken and influential within a particular society or community. It is often the language of government, education, media, and commerce, and may be the official language of a country or region. Examples of dominant languages include English in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and many other countries, Mandarin Chinese in China Spanish in Mexico, Spain, and many other countries.

Languages of Nepal

Nepal is a diverse country with more than 100 ethnic groups and over 123 different languages spoken. The official language of Nepal is Nepali, which is spoken by the majority of the population and serves as the language of government, education, and media. However, there are many other languages spoken in Nepal, including Maithili, Bhojpuri, Tamang, Newari, Magar, Awadhi, Tharu, Gurung, Rai, Limbu, etc. These languages are primarily spoken by ethnic minority groups within Nepal.

Provisions related to languages in the constitution of Nepal 2015

Article 6- All native languages spoken in Nepal are national languages of Nepal.

Article 7a- Nepali language in Devanagari Script is used for Nepal government work.

Article 7b- Besides Nepali language, the provinces can choose one or more other languages spoken by majority population of that province for government work.

Nepali Language Family

i. Indo-Aryan language family

The Indo-Aryan language family is a branch of the larger Indo-European language family. Tharu, Majhi, Bhojpuri, Maithili, Nepali, Awadhi, etc. of the Indo- Aryan family languages are spoken by the largest group of the speakers in Nepal.

ii. Tibeto-Burman language family

The Tibeto-Burman language family is a branch of the larger Sino-Tibetan language family. Nepal is home to many Tibeto-Burman languages, which are spoken by various ethnic groups across the country. Some of the major Tibeto-Burman languages spoken in Nepal include Tamang, Newari, Sherpa, Gurung, Thakali, Limbu, Rai, etc.

iii. Austro-Asiatic language family

The languages of this family are not widely spoken in Nepal. This family includes the languages such as Santhali, Munda, and Kharia. These languages are in endangered condition in Nepal.

iv. Dravidian language family

There are only two languages, belonging to the Dravidian language family spoken in Nepal. They are Kisan and Jhangar.

Varieties of Language

Varieties of language refer to the variations in the use of the same language. The same language can be used differently in different places, society, fields, situations, etc.

Different Varieties of Language:

Dialect

A dialect is a regional, social variety of a same language. It differs in pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary from the standard language.

Dialects can be classified into two groups:

i. Social Dialect

If any language varies according to social classes, age, and social status, it is known as social dialect.

ii. Geographical Dialect

When a language varies according to the geographical distance, it is called geographical dialect.

Register

Register is a speech variety used by a particular group of people usually sharing the same occupation or the same interest. It is used based variety of a language.

Types of Register:

i. Topic or Field-Based Register

In topic or field-based register, the language used by a speaker or writer may vary depending on the subject matter or field of expertise. Literary English, sports English, scientific English, etc. are the examples of field -based register.

ii. Mode-Based Register

In mode-based register, the language used by a speaker or writer may differ depending on the mode of communication. Spoken and written varieties come under mode -based register.

iii. Situation or Tenure – Based Register

In situation or tenure-based register, the language used by a speaker or writer may vary depending on the specific situation or context in which the communication is taking place. For example, a doctor might use a technical register when discussing medical conditions with other healthcare professionals.

Idiolect

If any language varies person to person, this variety of language is called idiolect. It is a unique way of using language that is shaped by an individual's background, experiences, and personality.

Pidgin

Pidgin is a language with no native speakers. It is no one's first language but a language of contact. It is the product of multilingual situation in which those who wish to communicate must find or improvise a simple language system that will enable them to do so.

Features of Pidgin:

a. It is not a full-fledged language.

b. It is a hybrid language.

c. It was originated as a trade language.

d. It is not spoken in a family as mother tongue.

e. It is a mixture of two or more languages.

f. It lacks so many phonological, grammatical, and semantic systems.

Creole

Creole is a language that forms two or more parent languages merging together into a new language. It has the base of pidgin. It develops as the first language of the children of pidgin speakers. When pidgin acquires native speakers, creole takes birth.

British and American English

British English (BrE) and American English (AmE) are the two main dialects of the English language. They differ mainly in terms of vocabulary, pronunciation, spelling, and grammar.

Spelling:

One of the most noticeable differences between British and American English is in spelling. For example, words like "color" and "honor" are spelled with "u" in British English ("colour" and "honour"), while American English spells them without the "u."

Vocabulary:

There are many differences in vocabulary between the two varieties of English. For example, in British English, people use "lorry" instead of "truck," "flat" instead of "apartment," and "biscuit" instead of "cookie." Pronunciation: British and American English also differ in their pronunciation of certain words. For example, British English tends to pronounce the "r" sound in words like "car" and "park," while American English often drops the "r" sound in the same words.

Grammar:

There are also some grammatical differences between British and American English. For example, in British English, collective nouns like "team" or "family" are often treated as singular nouns, while in American English, they are often treated as plural nouns. In British English, the present perfect tense (e.g. "I have seen that movie") is used more frequently than in American English. In American English, the simple past tense (e.g. "I saw that movie") is often used instead.

Black English Vernacular

Black English Vernacular is a dialect of English that is spoken primarily by African Americans in the United States. It has its own unique linguistic features that distinguish it from Standard American English, including distinct pronunciations, vocabulary, and grammatical structures. It has been portrayed as a "broken" or "inferior" form of English. It has also influenced other English varieties spoken in different parts of the world, particularly in areas with significant African diaspora populations.

Standard American English

Standard American English is a variety of English that is widely recognized as the standard form of the language in the United States. It is the variety of English that is typically taught in schools and universities, and is commonly used in formal settings such as business, government, and the media.

Standard American English is characterized by its relatively uniform grammar, vocabulary, and pronunciation across different regions of the United States. While there are some regional variations in vocabulary and pronunciation, the grammar and syntax of Standard American English is largely consistent throughout the country.

Features of Standard American English

a. It is a codified variety.

b. It is rich in vocabulary.

c. It has unlimited product of literature.

d. It is used in formal education, government offices, media, business, etc.